John Collier's Fight for Indian Rights and the First and Last Superintendent of Indian Affairs
John Collier’s Fights for Indian Rights and the First and Last Superintendent of Indian Affairs
For centuries, Native Americans in the New World managed their own affairs until Europeans arrived bringing guns and seeking conquest, gold and conversion to Christianity. In 1775, the Continental Congress composed of delegates from the thirteen British North American colonies met and created three departments- northern, central, and southern- to deal with Indian affairs and appointed commissioners to head the three departments. Benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry of Revolutionary War fame were two of the first commissioners with the charge of negotiating treaties with Indian tribes and persuading them to be neutral in the impending war.
Thomas McKenney Is Superintendent of Indian Trade
In 1789, after the Colonists won the Revolutionary War and created new governments under the Articles of the Confederation and the Constitution of the United States, the United States Congress created a War Department. The responsibilities of the new War Department included Indian relations and overseeing the factory trading system. The superintendent of Indian trade was responsible for overseeing the factory trading system and this office came under the control of the War Department in 1806.
Thomas Loraine McKenney held the office of Superintendent of Indian trade from 1816 until the factory system ended in 1822. The son of Quakers from the Eastern Shore of Maryland, McKenney believed that American Indians could and should be civilized. President James Madison appointed him Superintendent of the Indian Trade in 1816. He advocated the Indian Civilization Act of 1819 which provided funds for Indian education.
McKenney stridently opposed the upcoming Jacksonian Democracy and partisan strife marred his years in office.
Thomas McKenney Is the First Superintendent of Indian Affairs
The end of the factory system also ended the government effort to centralize the War Department work with the Indians for a two year interim period. In 1824 ,McKinney supported John C. Calhoun’s bid for the presidency of the United States and incurred the wrath of Congress and a special investigation of his office. The investigation fully exonerated McKenny and when John C. Calhoun became vice president he appointed McKinney as first Superintendent of Indian Affairs on March 11, 1824, Calhoun appointed former Superintendent of Indian Trade Thomas McKenney to head the new bureau and assigned two clerks to him as assistants.
Secretary Calhoun advised McKenney that his duties were to administer the appropriations for annuities and current expenses, to scrutinize and approve all expenditure vouchers, to administer the funds for the civilization of Indians, to rule on Intercourse Act claims between Indians and whites and to handle the routine Indian correspondence of the War Department.
It seems that only Calhoun called his new agency a Bureau of Indian Affairs. When he wrote about the new agency, Thomas McKenney called it the “Indian Office” and even after he had served for months he called it the “Office of Indian Affairs.”
Thomas McKenney faced the reality that he and his clerks were in all practicality an Indian agency within the War Department, handling a large correspondence and other routine Indian business, but the Secretary of War held all the authority and responsibility. McKenney felt that Congress needed to create an Office of Indian Affairs and appoint a department head with the authority to act on issues dealing with United States and Indian tribal relations.
On March 31, 1826, Thomas McKenney drew up a bill calling on Congress to create an Office of Indian Affairs giving its director the authority and responsibility to deal with all issues dealing with Indian affairs. The bill called for the appointment of a “General Superintendent of Indian Affairs” to head the Office of Indian Affairs and to assume the responsibilities that had formerly rested with the Secretary of War. Congress didn’t pass the bill.
Thomas McKenney Worked to “ Civilize” Instead of Exterminate the Indians
In 1829, Governor Lewis Cass and included McKenney's proposal in his plan to recognize Indian affairs. The measure surfaced for the third time when the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs introduced it in the in 22nd Congress, and it passed both houses to become law on July 9, 1829. The bill gave the president authority to appoint a Commissioner of Indian Affairs to serve under the Secretary of War, and have "the direction and management of all Indian affairs, and all matters arising out of Indian relations." The Commissioner appointment came with an annual salary of $3,000.
McKenney only served in his new position for about a year. He continued to oppose Andrew Jackson and his democratic polices even though he supported the Indian Removal Act of 1830 with its devastating consequences for the Indians. He argued that removal of the Indians was more humane than killing them, but despite their similar stance on the Indian Removal Act, President Jackson dismissed Thomas McKenney from office in 1830.
After he left office, McKenney remained active in anti-Democratic politics, but he never held office again. He spent the last part of his life living in obscurity in Brooklyn and died on February 20, 1859. McKenney supported the polices of his predecessors in the Washington and Adams administrations that aimed to civilize rather than exterminate the Indians.
Congress Transfers the Bureau of Indian Affairs to the Interior Department
Despite the political nature of the office of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the fact that Congress had created an official Bureau of Indian Affairs and a Commissioner to head it within the War Department stabilized the organization. It could effectively work to develop an orderly framework to conduct Indian relations and to end confusion in dealing with the Indians.
In 1849, Congress amended the act to transfer the Bureau of Indian Affairs to the Department of the Interior, creating a change in policy and responsibilities. Removing the tribes to reservations created disease and starvation that forced the government to start providing tribes with food and other supplies. The Bureau of Indian Affairs had the responsibility of administering this aid, but by the 1860s it had abdicated its responsibility. Unscrupulous Indian agents multiplied the misery on reservations and created hostility.
Indian Agents Take the Place of Tribal Government
In 1867, Congress appointed a Peace Commission to study the problems of the Bureau of Indian Affair’s administration of reservations. The Peace Commission recommended sweeping changes, including appointing honest and effective agents and establishing a separate agency for Indian affairs. Some improvements were made, but the recommendation to remove the Bureau of Indian Affairs from the Interior Department and establish it as an independent agency was never followed.
During the assimilation era in the 1880s, the Bureau of Indian Affairs increased its presence on reservations. Indian agents became responsible for operating schools, handing out justice, distributing supplies, administering allotments and leasing contract. By 1900, the Indian agents had effectively taken place of the tribal government.
Beginning with Thomas McKenney, the Commissioners of Indian Affairs practiced their beliefs and applied them in their daily office service. Most commissioners were products of their society and all of them had individual mind sets and management styles.
John Collier Fights for Indian Rights
John Collier fought for Indian rights and guided the Indian New Deal and Morris Thompson served as the youngest and final Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Many commissioners fought for Native American rights, although some were indifferent and corrupt. The Twentieth Century ushered in a radical change in the paternalistic treatment of whites toward Native Americans and the Commissioners of Indian Affairs reflected that change.
John Collier commissioner from 1933-1945, served the longest term and brought about the most reforms and Morris Thompson, a Tanana from Alaska, was the youngest Commissioner of Indian Affairs and the last person to serve as Commissioner of Indian affairs under that title. Under the reorganizations of the 1970s, commissioners are now listed on the Department of Interior website as Assistant Secretaries of the Interior for Indian Affairs.
John Collier Visits the New Mexico Pueblos and Changes American Indian Policy
Charles Collier was prominent Atlanta banker, businessman, and civic leader and his son, John followed in his leadership footsteps. John Collier attended Columbia University where he began to develop the social ideas that would shape his future work with American Indians. He also attended the College de France in Paris where his outlook grew even broader. John Collier believed that the industrial age had harmful effects on people and that society had become too materialistic and individualist. He argued that American culture needed to regain a sense of community and responsibility.
In 1919, while Collier visited his artist friend Mabel Dodge at the Taos Pueblo in Taos, New Mexico, he had his first contact with American Indians. Over the next two years he spent much time at an art colony outside of Taos studying the history of the American Indians. After visiting the southwestern Pueblos in the 1920s, John Collier resolved to improve the lot of Native Americans and fight for their rights to retain their distinctive lifestyles and culture.
In 1921, he left Taos for a San Francisco teaching job, but he took his beliefs about Indians and their culture with him. He passionately believed that the dominant white culture should not be allowed to destroy Indian culture. He rejected the current forced assimilation and Americanization polices and he demanded that the Indian culture should be preserved and accepted as part of dealing with them.
John Collier said that Indians needed to keep their lands to survive and he lobbied for the repeal of the Indian General Allotment Act of 1887 or the Dawes Act. The Dawes Act tried to assimilate Indians by dividing their reservation land into individual lots of private property. He believed that the allotment of Indian land had failed completely and contributed to the continued loss of Indian land. In 1922, Collier emerged as a federal Indian policy reformer and ushered in a turning point in Indian affairs.
John Collier Inspires the Meriam Report
With his strong principles of cultural pluralism and advocacy of the repeal of the Dawes Act, John Collier directly challenged the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Before Collier’s focused criticism of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, it had been mostly criticized for its corrupt and incompetent officials. Collier redirected the criticism to the policies that the Bureau implemented.
For the next ten years, John Collier fought the Bureau of Indian Affairs policies that he believed were not beneficial to Native Americans. His efforts led to a 1926-1927 study of the general conditions of Indians in the United States. The study results were called the Meriam Report which was published in 1928 as The Problem of Indian Administration. The Meriam Report exposed the failure of federal Indian policies and how the policies contributed to shortcomings in Indian education and health, and perpetuated poverty.
Congress responded to the Meriam Report by passing the Indian Reorganization Act which aimed to improve tribal economies and strengthen tribal governments.
John Collier Initiates the “Indian New Deal”
When the New Deal came to Washington in 1933, Interior Secretary Harold Ickes appointed Collier as Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Collier resolved to give the Indians their own New Deal. He determined to make the Indians mainly self governing, self supporting, and enable them to return to their old culture and community life.
Congress adopted Collier’s Indian Reorganization Act in 1934 opened the way for Indians to use their tribal holdings and extend them. It also stipulated that with a majority vote each reservation could incorporate its business affairs under federal charter and secure a constitution. Under Colliers tenure as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the Bureau liberalized many of its more repressive policies.
Termination and the Indian Self Determination Act
After World War Two, the scope of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the duties of Commissioner of Indian Affairs expanded to include forestry, range management and land acquisition. The 1950s, 1960s and 1970s brought the termination era. At this point Congress dismantled some of the BIA and the Commissioner’s duties.
In the 1970s the new policy of self-determination reversed the policies of termination and along with the new policy came greater application of Indian culture and tribal governments. Congress passed a series of laws, including the Indian Self-Determination Act, the Indian Child Welfare Act and the Health Care Improvement Act, which aimed to improve the quality of reservation life without destroying tribal government.
Morris Thompson is the Youngest and Last Commissioner of Indian Affairs
Morris Thompson, an Alaska native, and the youngest and the last Commissioner of Indian Affairs to serve under that title, symbolized the changes in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Born and raised and buried after he died in an airplane crash in the village of Tanana, Alaska, Morris understood the confluence of cultures and rivers.
He held leadership positions in the Alaska Federation of Natives and Commonwealth North and served in a cabinet position in the Walter Hickel administration. In 1985 he managed the Doyon Limited Corporation into one of the most profitable and stable Alaska Native Corporations.
But he made it clear to everyone he met that he was “just another boy from Tanana”.
The Anchorage Daily News and the Fairbanks Daily News Miner emphasized that “ he treated all with respect, whether he was at the White House or at fish camp.’Big' as his family and friends knew him, was recognized for his gifts of open communication and diplomacy.” He wanted to work together on commonalities and celebrate our diversity… bring together Native and non-native organizations, building bridges between cultures….”
References
Armstrong, William H. Warrior in Two Camps: Ely S. Parker, Union General and Seneca Chief. Syracuse University Press, 1990.
Collier, John. From Every Zenith: A Memoir; and Some Essays on Life and Thought . New York: Sage Books, 1963
Collier, John . On the Gleaming Way: Navajos, Eastern Pueblos, Zunis, Hopis, Apaches, and Their Land. New York: Swallow Press
Kelly, L. C. The Assault on Assimilation: John Collier and the Origins of Indian Policy Reform.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1963
McKenney, Thomas. Memoirs, Official and Personal: Thomas L. McKenney. [1846] With Introduction by Herman J. Viola. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1973
Philp, Kenneth R. John Collier and the American Indian, 1920–1945.Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1968
Philp, Kenneth R. John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977
Prucha, Francis Paul. The Indians in American Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Stuz, Eric. Seneca Chief, Army General: A Story About Ely Parker. Lerner Publishing. 2004.
Viola, Herman J. Thomas L. McKenney: Architect of America’s Early Indian Policy: 1816-1830. Chicago: The Swallow Press Inc., Sage Books. 1974.
For centuries, Native Americans in the New World managed their own affairs until Europeans arrived bringing guns and seeking conquest, gold and conversion to Christianity. In 1775, the Continental Congress composed of delegates from the thirteen British North American colonies met and created three departments- northern, central, and southern- to deal with Indian affairs and appointed commissioners to head the three departments. Benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry of Revolutionary War fame were two of the first commissioners with the charge of negotiating treaties with Indian tribes and persuading them to be neutral in the impending war.
Thomas McKenney Is Superintendent of Indian Trade
In 1789, after the Colonists won the Revolutionary War and created new governments under the Articles of the Confederation and the Constitution of the United States, the United States Congress created a War Department. The responsibilities of the new War Department included Indian relations and overseeing the factory trading system. The superintendent of Indian trade was responsible for overseeing the factory trading system and this office came under the control of the War Department in 1806.
Thomas Loraine McKenney held the office of Superintendent of Indian trade from 1816 until the factory system ended in 1822. The son of Quakers from the Eastern Shore of Maryland, McKenney believed that American Indians could and should be civilized. President James Madison appointed him Superintendent of the Indian Trade in 1816. He advocated the Indian Civilization Act of 1819 which provided funds for Indian education.
McKenney stridently opposed the upcoming Jacksonian Democracy and partisan strife marred his years in office.
Thomas McKenney Is the First Superintendent of Indian Affairs
The end of the factory system also ended the government effort to centralize the War Department work with the Indians for a two year interim period. In 1824 ,McKinney supported John C. Calhoun’s bid for the presidency of the United States and incurred the wrath of Congress and a special investigation of his office. The investigation fully exonerated McKenny and when John C. Calhoun became vice president he appointed McKinney as first Superintendent of Indian Affairs on March 11, 1824, Calhoun appointed former Superintendent of Indian Trade Thomas McKenney to head the new bureau and assigned two clerks to him as assistants.
Secretary Calhoun advised McKenney that his duties were to administer the appropriations for annuities and current expenses, to scrutinize and approve all expenditure vouchers, to administer the funds for the civilization of Indians, to rule on Intercourse Act claims between Indians and whites and to handle the routine Indian correspondence of the War Department.
It seems that only Calhoun called his new agency a Bureau of Indian Affairs. When he wrote about the new agency, Thomas McKenney called it the “Indian Office” and even after he had served for months he called it the “Office of Indian Affairs.”
Thomas McKenney faced the reality that he and his clerks were in all practicality an Indian agency within the War Department, handling a large correspondence and other routine Indian business, but the Secretary of War held all the authority and responsibility. McKenney felt that Congress needed to create an Office of Indian Affairs and appoint a department head with the authority to act on issues dealing with United States and Indian tribal relations.
On March 31, 1826, Thomas McKenney drew up a bill calling on Congress to create an Office of Indian Affairs giving its director the authority and responsibility to deal with all issues dealing with Indian affairs. The bill called for the appointment of a “General Superintendent of Indian Affairs” to head the Office of Indian Affairs and to assume the responsibilities that had formerly rested with the Secretary of War. Congress didn’t pass the bill.
Thomas McKenney Worked to “ Civilize” Instead of Exterminate the Indians
In 1829, Governor Lewis Cass and included McKenney's proposal in his plan to recognize Indian affairs. The measure surfaced for the third time when the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs introduced it in the in 22nd Congress, and it passed both houses to become law on July 9, 1829. The bill gave the president authority to appoint a Commissioner of Indian Affairs to serve under the Secretary of War, and have "the direction and management of all Indian affairs, and all matters arising out of Indian relations." The Commissioner appointment came with an annual salary of $3,000.
McKenney only served in his new position for about a year. He continued to oppose Andrew Jackson and his democratic polices even though he supported the Indian Removal Act of 1830 with its devastating consequences for the Indians. He argued that removal of the Indians was more humane than killing them, but despite their similar stance on the Indian Removal Act, President Jackson dismissed Thomas McKenney from office in 1830.
After he left office, McKenney remained active in anti-Democratic politics, but he never held office again. He spent the last part of his life living in obscurity in Brooklyn and died on February 20, 1859. McKenney supported the polices of his predecessors in the Washington and Adams administrations that aimed to civilize rather than exterminate the Indians.
Congress Transfers the Bureau of Indian Affairs to the Interior Department
Despite the political nature of the office of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the fact that Congress had created an official Bureau of Indian Affairs and a Commissioner to head it within the War Department stabilized the organization. It could effectively work to develop an orderly framework to conduct Indian relations and to end confusion in dealing with the Indians.
In 1849, Congress amended the act to transfer the Bureau of Indian Affairs to the Department of the Interior, creating a change in policy and responsibilities. Removing the tribes to reservations created disease and starvation that forced the government to start providing tribes with food and other supplies. The Bureau of Indian Affairs had the responsibility of administering this aid, but by the 1860s it had abdicated its responsibility. Unscrupulous Indian agents multiplied the misery on reservations and created hostility.
Indian Agents Take the Place of Tribal Government
In 1867, Congress appointed a Peace Commission to study the problems of the Bureau of Indian Affair’s administration of reservations. The Peace Commission recommended sweeping changes, including appointing honest and effective agents and establishing a separate agency for Indian affairs. Some improvements were made, but the recommendation to remove the Bureau of Indian Affairs from the Interior Department and establish it as an independent agency was never followed.
During the assimilation era in the 1880s, the Bureau of Indian Affairs increased its presence on reservations. Indian agents became responsible for operating schools, handing out justice, distributing supplies, administering allotments and leasing contract. By 1900, the Indian agents had effectively taken place of the tribal government.
Beginning with Thomas McKenney, the Commissioners of Indian Affairs practiced their beliefs and applied them in their daily office service. Most commissioners were products of their society and all of them had individual mind sets and management styles.
John Collier Fights for Indian Rights
John Collier fought for Indian rights and guided the Indian New Deal and Morris Thompson served as the youngest and final Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Many commissioners fought for Native American rights, although some were indifferent and corrupt. The Twentieth Century ushered in a radical change in the paternalistic treatment of whites toward Native Americans and the Commissioners of Indian Affairs reflected that change.
John Collier commissioner from 1933-1945, served the longest term and brought about the most reforms and Morris Thompson, a Tanana from Alaska, was the youngest Commissioner of Indian Affairs and the last person to serve as Commissioner of Indian affairs under that title. Under the reorganizations of the 1970s, commissioners are now listed on the Department of Interior website as Assistant Secretaries of the Interior for Indian Affairs.
John Collier Visits the New Mexico Pueblos and Changes American Indian Policy
Charles Collier was prominent Atlanta banker, businessman, and civic leader and his son, John followed in his leadership footsteps. John Collier attended Columbia University where he began to develop the social ideas that would shape his future work with American Indians. He also attended the College de France in Paris where his outlook grew even broader. John Collier believed that the industrial age had harmful effects on people and that society had become too materialistic and individualist. He argued that American culture needed to regain a sense of community and responsibility.
In 1919, while Collier visited his artist friend Mabel Dodge at the Taos Pueblo in Taos, New Mexico, he had his first contact with American Indians. Over the next two years he spent much time at an art colony outside of Taos studying the history of the American Indians. After visiting the southwestern Pueblos in the 1920s, John Collier resolved to improve the lot of Native Americans and fight for their rights to retain their distinctive lifestyles and culture.
In 1921, he left Taos for a San Francisco teaching job, but he took his beliefs about Indians and their culture with him. He passionately believed that the dominant white culture should not be allowed to destroy Indian culture. He rejected the current forced assimilation and Americanization polices and he demanded that the Indian culture should be preserved and accepted as part of dealing with them.
John Collier said that Indians needed to keep their lands to survive and he lobbied for the repeal of the Indian General Allotment Act of 1887 or the Dawes Act. The Dawes Act tried to assimilate Indians by dividing their reservation land into individual lots of private property. He believed that the allotment of Indian land had failed completely and contributed to the continued loss of Indian land. In 1922, Collier emerged as a federal Indian policy reformer and ushered in a turning point in Indian affairs.
John Collier Inspires the Meriam Report
With his strong principles of cultural pluralism and advocacy of the repeal of the Dawes Act, John Collier directly challenged the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Before Collier’s focused criticism of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, it had been mostly criticized for its corrupt and incompetent officials. Collier redirected the criticism to the policies that the Bureau implemented.
For the next ten years, John Collier fought the Bureau of Indian Affairs policies that he believed were not beneficial to Native Americans. His efforts led to a 1926-1927 study of the general conditions of Indians in the United States. The study results were called the Meriam Report which was published in 1928 as The Problem of Indian Administration. The Meriam Report exposed the failure of federal Indian policies and how the policies contributed to shortcomings in Indian education and health, and perpetuated poverty.
Congress responded to the Meriam Report by passing the Indian Reorganization Act which aimed to improve tribal economies and strengthen tribal governments.
John Collier Initiates the “Indian New Deal”
When the New Deal came to Washington in 1933, Interior Secretary Harold Ickes appointed Collier as Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Collier resolved to give the Indians their own New Deal. He determined to make the Indians mainly self governing, self supporting, and enable them to return to their old culture and community life.
Congress adopted Collier’s Indian Reorganization Act in 1934 opened the way for Indians to use their tribal holdings and extend them. It also stipulated that with a majority vote each reservation could incorporate its business affairs under federal charter and secure a constitution. Under Colliers tenure as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the Bureau liberalized many of its more repressive policies.
Termination and the Indian Self Determination Act
After World War Two, the scope of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the duties of Commissioner of Indian Affairs expanded to include forestry, range management and land acquisition. The 1950s, 1960s and 1970s brought the termination era. At this point Congress dismantled some of the BIA and the Commissioner’s duties.
In the 1970s the new policy of self-determination reversed the policies of termination and along with the new policy came greater application of Indian culture and tribal governments. Congress passed a series of laws, including the Indian Self-Determination Act, the Indian Child Welfare Act and the Health Care Improvement Act, which aimed to improve the quality of reservation life without destroying tribal government.
Morris Thompson is the Youngest and Last Commissioner of Indian Affairs
Morris Thompson, an Alaska native, and the youngest and the last Commissioner of Indian Affairs to serve under that title, symbolized the changes in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Born and raised and buried after he died in an airplane crash in the village of Tanana, Alaska, Morris understood the confluence of cultures and rivers.
He held leadership positions in the Alaska Federation of Natives and Commonwealth North and served in a cabinet position in the Walter Hickel administration. In 1985 he managed the Doyon Limited Corporation into one of the most profitable and stable Alaska Native Corporations.
But he made it clear to everyone he met that he was “just another boy from Tanana”.
The Anchorage Daily News and the Fairbanks Daily News Miner emphasized that “ he treated all with respect, whether he was at the White House or at fish camp.’Big' as his family and friends knew him, was recognized for his gifts of open communication and diplomacy.” He wanted to work together on commonalities and celebrate our diversity… bring together Native and non-native organizations, building bridges between cultures….”
References
Armstrong, William H. Warrior in Two Camps: Ely S. Parker, Union General and Seneca Chief. Syracuse University Press, 1990.
Collier, John. From Every Zenith: A Memoir; and Some Essays on Life and Thought . New York: Sage Books, 1963
Collier, John . On the Gleaming Way: Navajos, Eastern Pueblos, Zunis, Hopis, Apaches, and Their Land. New York: Swallow Press
Kelly, L. C. The Assault on Assimilation: John Collier and the Origins of Indian Policy Reform.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1963
McKenney, Thomas. Memoirs, Official and Personal: Thomas L. McKenney. [1846] With Introduction by Herman J. Viola. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1973
Philp, Kenneth R. John Collier and the American Indian, 1920–1945.Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1968
Philp, Kenneth R. John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977
Prucha, Francis Paul. The Indians in American Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Stuz, Eric. Seneca Chief, Army General: A Story About Ely Parker. Lerner Publishing. 2004.
Viola, Herman J. Thomas L. McKenney: Architect of America’s Early Indian Policy: 1816-1830. Chicago: The Swallow Press Inc., Sage Books. 1974.
